tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-51114010176696812872023-11-15T05:19:01.019-08:00Computer Information Center !! Articles, Guides and Reviews ...iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.comBlogger14125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-80580231026135314152008-10-01T19:48:00.000-07:002008-10-01T19:52:13.175-07:00Moved to new blog ...I've decided to make a blog be more specific in details. So I can give more useful information to all visitors. Since now my blog will focus on mouse things ^^<br /><br />Others computer-oriented site may be built soon later.<br /><br />Thank you all for visiting.<br /><br />Here's the address of my new blog.<br /><br /><a href="http://worldmousecenter.blogspot.com/">World Mouse Center</a><br /><br /><br />iGofxiGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-90149211256374363802008-10-01T01:30:00.000-07:002008-10-01T04:05:41.030-07:00Buying a new Mouse: GuideThere are many kinds of mouse you can find in the market nowadays, which are varying in price and function. You may wonder which one you should buy, which one would suit to your need.<br /><br />Here is some information to help you get more understanding what are you going to pay for. I hope that it can help you find the best one that you are looking for.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Step I.</span><br />First of all, you should take a look at the back of your computer case and find the port. Normal PC should have a PS/2 port which has a shape like the picture shown below.<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Ps-2-ports.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 199px; height: 80px;" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Ps-2-ports.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />The green one is PS/2 port for mouse<br /><br /><div style="text-align: left;">But for laptops, most them don't have this connector. They use the USB port instead. The USB port has a shape like the picture shown below.<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.microsoft.com/library/media/1033/windowsxp/images/using/setup/hwprograms/67411-usb.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 201px; height: 172px;" src="http://www.microsoft.com/library/media/1033/windowsxp/images/using/setup/hwprograms/67411-usb.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />The USB port and connector<br /><br /><div style="text-align: left;">Nowadays, the used of USB port is keep increasing rapidly. Sometimes you may find that it hard to find a PS/2 version of the mouse that you want to buy. However, there's a PS/2-USB adaptor available in the market.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Step II.</span><br />Wheel, Optical or Laser?? You may wonder what is different between these kinds of mouse. For wheel mouse is kind of outdated in present. It's quite hard to find one in the market nowadays so I wouldn't mention it and I won't recommend you to buy it. The different between Optical mouse and Laser mouse is that the Optical mouse uses an infrared to track the movement of patterns on the surface. It need a mouse pad to work well. For laser mouse, it uses an invisible light instead. It can be used on surfaces with less defined texture such as metal or dark woodgrain desktops without mouse pad needed. For example, try using an <span class="searchword2">optical</span> mouse on a piece of high gloss photo paper and it'll probably not move while a <span class="searchword0">laser</span> mouse is still able to see surface detail. But the price of laser mouse is, of course, higher than the optical one.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Step III.</span><br />Corded or Cordless?? I've made a post of this question already. Please take a look.<br />Here is the link ... <a href="http://danewblog.blogspot.com/2008/09/cord-vs-cordless-mouse.html">Corded VS Cordless Mouse</a><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Step IV.</span><br />Next, you should decide that which kind of job that you want your new mouse doing for you.<br /><br /><ul><li>For basic users - I'll recommend that you should buy any mouse that has a reasonable price, acceptable durability in a color and style that you like. But you should concern about the size as well, choose the mouse that has a suitable size with your hand.</li><li>For internet users - I'd recommend you to buy a mouse that has a scroll wheel button. It's a must !!</li><li>For advanced users - You'd know quite much about these mice. The thing I'd recommend is find a mouse that have many buttons which you can bind it to perform specific task, it' ll save you a lot of time. Just find one that suit to your working style.</li><li>For gamers - There are many mice that design for gamers available in the market. I' ll make a post of these mice in details later. The link will be placed here soon.<br /></li></ul><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Step V.</span><br />For advanced users and gamers. The things you should know before select the mouse is:<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">DPI or Dots Per Inch</span> - The DPI is the amount of Dots per inch the optical sensor can read. The Higher DPI means more sensitive the mouse can be. High and adjustable DPI mouse is suits for gamers, especially Action or FPS(First Person Shooting) gamers.<br /><br />A good gaming example would be in a first person shooter when many gun types are used. When roaming free you will want a high DPI on your mouse so that a quick movement can be performed with ease. However when sniping a lower DPI will help with a much slower movement giving greater accuracy in this instance. If you do a lot of gaming or have reason to believe that changing the DPI will be beneficial to you then a mouse with on-the-fly DPI changing will be a great use.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Step VI.</span><br />Choose brand, color, and style.<br />I'll make a post of mouse brands analysis in details later. The link will be placed here soon.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Step VII.</span><br />Make a decision and buy one !!<br /><br /><br />Hope this post will help you, and enjoy with your new mouse ^^<br /><br /><br />iGofx</div></div></div></div>iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-4209753877044688622008-09-30T23:06:00.000-07:002008-10-01T04:13:18.863-07:00Corded VS Cordless MouseSome people keep asking what are the advantages and disadvantages of corded and cordless mouse, and which one should they buy it. Here is the result that I have found so far.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Advantages of Corded Mouse:</span><br /><br /><ul><li>Battery. You don’t have to worried about recharging the battery. Sometimes it’s quite annoying if the battery running out while you are doing something important. Moreover, the battery price seem to be more expensive compare to the electricity cost.</li></ul><ul><li>Durability. Corded mouse usually has a longer life.</li></ul><ul><li>Easy-to-use. Just plug-in, that’s all. You don’t have to install any driver or synchronize your mouse with the signal receiver.</li></ul><ul><li>More Reliable. However, many brand new cordless mice have a high level of reliability as well but, of course, it comes with a much higher price.</li></ul><ul><li>Price. Corded mice price are much cheaper in the same level of product quality. This is the main issue that people choose the corded mouse instead of the cordless one.</li></ul><ul><li>Signal. Sometimes cordless mice may have a signal interruption problem from other devices or cannot connect to the signal receiver. But this issue has been improved in the newer version of cordless mouse.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.systemaxdev.com/productmedia/htmlimages/cten/Mice/Q72184-large.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.systemaxdev.com/productmedia/htmlimages/cten/Mice/Q72184-large.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Advantages of Cordless Mouse:</span><br /><br /><ul><li>Brand new technology, cool-looking.</li></ul><ul><li>No more tangle of cords on your table.</li></ul><ul><li>More freely to move.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/productImages/9/1/00000112291-LogitechG7LaserCordlessMouse-large.jpeg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/productImages/9/1/00000112291-LogitechG7LaserCordlessMouse-large.jpeg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><br />From the experience of users I’ve found so far over the internet. More than 70% satisfied prefer the corded mouse, and the main problems that have been complaint most often is the battery and price issues.<br /><br />However, many cordless mouse users satisfied with their mouse as well.<br /><br /><br />In my opinion, I have both corded and cordless mouse and I like both of them. The only difference thing to me is just the price. If you think that it’s worth paying more for remove the cord. Then the cordless mouse is your choice !!<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><br /><br /></div>iGofxiGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-71127663108526673982008-09-30T21:04:00.000-07:002008-09-30T21:09:57.196-07:00Sound CardA <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sound Card</span> (also known as an audio card) is a computer expansion card that facilitates the input and output of audio signals to/from a computer under control of computer programs. Typical uses of sound cards include providing the audio component for multimedia applications such as music composition, editing video or audio, presentation/education, and entertainment (games). Many computers have sound capabilities built in, while others require additional expansion cards to provide for audio capability.<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.slipperybrick.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/titanium-fatpro.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 250px; height: 189px;" src="http://www.slipperybrick.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/titanium-fatpro.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />The Creative PCI Express Sound Blaster X-Fi Titanium Fatal1ty Professional<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: left;">Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_card">Wikipeida</a><br /></div></div>iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-9808848310243384142008-09-30T20:51:00.000-07:002008-09-30T21:01:45.135-07:00Video CardA <span style="font-weight: bold;">Video card</span>, also known as a graphics accelerator card, display adapter, or graphics card, is a hardware component whose function is to generate and output images to a display. It operates on similar principles as a sound card or other peripheral devices.<br /><br />The term is usually used to refer to a separate, dedicated expansion card that is plugged into a slot on the computer's motherboard, as opposed to a graphics controller integrated into the motherboard chipset. An integrated graphics controller may be referred to as an "integrated graphics processor" (IGP).<br /><br />Some video cards offer added functions, such as video capture, TV tuner adapter, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 decoding or even FireWire, mouse, light pen, joystick connectors, or even the ability to connect multiple monitors.<br /><br />A common misconception regarding video cards is that they are strictly used for Video games; a misconception that companies take advantage of in order to sell their products by advertising their products as if they were in fact video consoles. Video cards instead have a much broader range of capability. Being specialized for video output Video Cards improve what a computer monitor displays. As well, they play a very important role for Graphic Designers and 3D Animators, who tend to require optimum displays for their work as well as faster rendering in order to efficiently tone up their work.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://mediang.gameswelt.net/public/images/200804/2446412998b22997522baf72dbdb271d.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://mediang.gameswelt.net/public/images/200804/2446412998b22997522baf72dbdb271d.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />The Geforce 9800 GTX Video Card<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: left;">Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_card">Wikipedia</a><br /></div></div>iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-36628341946643381132008-09-30T20:21:00.000-07:002008-09-30T20:50:14.188-07:00Hard Disk DriveA <span style="font-weight: bold;">Hard Disk Drive (HDD)</span>, commonly referred to as a hard drive, hard disk, or fixed disk drive, is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, "drive" refers to a device distinct from its medium, such as a tape drive and its tape, or a floppy disk drive and its floppy disk. Early HDDs had removable media; however, an HDD today is typically a sealed unit (except for a filtered vent hole to equalize air pressure) with fixed media.<br /><br />Originally, the term "hard" was temporary slang, substituting "hard" for "rigid", before these drives had an established and universally-agreed-upon name. A HDD is a rigid-disk drive although it is rarely referred to as such. By way of comparison, a floppy drive (more formally, a diskette drive) has a disc that is flexible. Some time ago, IBM's internal company term for a HDD was "file".<br /><br />HDDs (introduced in 1956 as data storage for an IBM accounting computer) were originally developed for use with general purpose computers; see History of hard disk drives.<br /><br />In the 21st century, applications for HDDs have expanded to include digital video recorders, digital audio players, personal digital assistants, digital cameras and video game consoles. In 2005 the first mobile phones to include HDDs were introduced by Samsung and Nokia. The need for large-scale, reliable storage, independent of a particular device, led to the introduction of configurations such as RAID arrays, network attached storage (NAS) systems and storage area network (SAN) systems that provide efficient and reliable access to large volumes of data. Note that although not immediately recognizable as a computer, all the aforementioned applications are actually embedded computing devices of some sort.<br /><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Types of Hard Disk</span><br /><br /><ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">IDE </span><span>or</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Integrated Drive Electronics</span> - The IDE hard disk is until know the most used hard disk in computers but in the future the SATA hard disks will be used more and more. A IDE hard disk is<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span>later renamed to ATA, and then later to <span style="font-weight: bold;">PATA</span> (<span style="font-weight: bold;">Parallel </span></span><span style="font-weight: bold;">Advanced Technology Attachment</span><span>, to distinguish it from the new Serial ATA)</span>. This means Parallel ATA and can transmit data on a normal speed and is a bit slower then the SATA hard disks. You can recognize a IDE hard disk at the connector. It has a 40 pins connector and it has quite a big power connector.</li></ul><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage3.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 199px; height: 100px;" src="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage3.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">SATA</span> or <span style="font-weight: bold;">Serial Advanced Technology Attachment</span> - A SATA hard disk works the same as an IDE hard drive but this type has a higher speed than the IDE hard disk. Also the connectors are a bit different then the IDE hard disk. You can recognize a SATA hard disk at the connector and it has a smaller power connector then the IDE hard disk. This hard disk is more and more used and probably it will replace the IDE hard disks.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage4.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 199px; height: 96px;" src="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage4.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">SCSI</span> or <span style="font-weight: bold;">Small Computer System Interface</span> - SCSI hard disks are much faster then the IDE or SATA hard disks. SCSI hard disks are mostly used for professional systems which need fast data access. These types of hard disks are often not used in home situations because they are more expensive then a IDE or SATA hard disk and in a home situation you don’t need that high speed. Mostly these hard disks are used in servers. You can recognize a SCSI hard disk at the connector and it has the same power connector then the IDE hard disk.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage5.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 249px; height: 67px;" src="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage5.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">USB</span> or <span style="font-weight: bold;">Universal Serial Bus</span> - This type of data storage medium is not installed in the computer but it can be attached to it using the USB interface. This is an external hard disk, also called a portable data storage device. This type of hard disk can be useful if you have a laptop with a small hard disk inside, you can use a USB hard disk to store your data on. These hard disks are a bit slower then the IDE or SATA hard disks. The speed also depends on the type of USB interface you attach it to. There are USB 1.1 interfaces and USB 2.0. Be sure you attach it to a USB 2.0 interface to let the hard disk work faster.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage6.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 150px; height: 150px;" src="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage6.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">FireWire</span> - A FireWire hard disk works the same as a USB hard disk and is also an <span style="font-weight: bold;">External hard disk</span>. The only difference is that a USB hard disk is attached to the computer using the USB interface and a FireWire hard disk uses the FireWire interface. A FireWire hard disk is also a bit faster than a USB hard disk. But your computer has to have a FireWire interface and not every computer has such interface where a USB interface is almost on every computer.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage7.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 199px; height: 119px;" src="http://www.about-your-computer.com/images/Storage7.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><br />Sources:<br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drive">Wikipedia</a><br /><a href="http://www.about-your-computer.com/datastorage.html">About your computer</a>iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-57655202878096623842008-09-30T19:38:00.000-07:002008-10-01T07:12:06.782-07:00Random Access Memory<span style="font-weight: bold;">Random-access memory</span> (usually known by its acronym, <span style="font-weight: bold;">RAM</span>) is a type of computer data storage. Today it takes the form of integrated circuits that allow the stored data to be accessed in any order, i.e. at random. The word random thus refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data.<br /><br />This contrasts with storage mechanisms such as tapes, magnetic discs and optical discs, which rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices, the movement takes longer than the data transfer, and the retrieval time varies depending on the physical location of the next item.<br /><br />The word RAM is mostly associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched off. However, many other types of memory are RAM as well (i.e. Random Access Memory), including most types of ROM and a kind of flash memory called NOR-Flash.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Types of RAM</span><br /><br /><ul><li><strong>FPM RAM</strong>, which stands for <span style="font-weight: bold;">Fast Page Mode RAM</span> is a type of Dynamic RAM (DRAM). The term Fast Page Mode comes from the capability of memory being able to access data that is on the same page and can be done with less latency. Most 486 and Pentium based systems from 1995 and earlier use FPM Memory.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/FPM-RAM.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/FPM-RAM.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /></div><ul><li><strong>EDO RAM</strong>, which stands for <span style="font-weight: bold;">Extended Data Out RAM</span> came out in 1995 as a new type of memory available for Pentium based systems. EDO is a modified form of FPM RAM which is commonly referred to as Hyper Page Mode. Extended Data Out refers to fact that the data output drivers on the memory module are not switched off when the memory controller removes the column address to begin the next cycle, unlike FPM RAM. Most early Penitum based systems use EDO.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/EDO-RAM.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/EDO-RAM.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /></div><ul><li><strong>SDRAM</strong>, which is short for <span style="font-weight: bold;">Synchronous DRAM</span> is a type of DRAM that runs in synchronization with the memory bus. Beginning in 1996 most Intel based chipsets began to support SDRAM which made it a popular choice for new systems in 2001.<br />SDRAM is capable of running at 133MHz which is about three times faster than FPM RAM and twice as fast as EDO RAM. Most Pentium or Celeron systems purchased in 1999 have SDRAM.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/SD-RAM.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/SD-RAM.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /></div><ul><li><strong>DDR RAM</strong>, which stands for <span style="font-weight: bold;">Double Data Rate RAM</span> is a type of SDRAM and appeared first on the market around 2001 but didn’t catch on until about 2001 when the mainstream motherboards started supporting it. The difference between SDRAM and DDR RAM is that instead of doubling the clock rate it transfers data twice per clock cycle which effectively doubles the data rate. DDRRAM has become mainstream in the graphics card market and has become the memory standard.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/DDR-RAM.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/DDR-RAM.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /></div><ul><li><strong>DDR2 RAM</strong>, which stands for <span style="font-weight: bold;">Double Data Rate 2 RAM</span> is a newer version of DDR which is twice as fast as the original DDR RAM. DDR2RAM came out in mid 2003 and the first chipsets that supported DDR2 came out in mid 2004. DDR2 still is double data rate just like the original DDR however DDR2-RAM has modified signaling which enables higher speeds to be achieved with more immunity to signal noise and cross-talk between signals.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/DDR2-RAM.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/DDR2-RAM.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /></div><ul><li><strong>RAMBUS (RIMM) RAM</strong> is a type of ram of its own, it came out in 1999 and was developed from traditional DRAM but its architecture is totally new. The RAMBUS design gives smarter access to the ram meaning that units can prefetch data and free some CPU work. The idea behind RAMBUS RAM is to get small packets of data from the RAM, but at very high clock speeds. For example, SD RAM can get 64bit of information at 100MHz where RAMBUS RAM would get 16bits of data at 800MHz. RIMM ram was generally unsuccessful as Intel had a lot of problems with the RAM timing or signal noise. RD RAM did make an appearance in the Sony Playstation 2 and the Nintendo 64 game consoles.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/RD-RAM.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.technibble.com/articlecontent/types-of-ram/RD-RAM.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: left;">Sources:<br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_memory">Wikipedia</a><br /><a href="http://www.technibble.com/types-of-ram-how-to-identify-and-their-specifications/">Technibble</a><br /><br /></div></div></div></div>iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-55920540131224840822008-09-30T19:29:00.000-07:002008-09-30T20:02:38.868-07:00Central Processing UnitA <span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Processing Unit (CPU)</span> is a logic machine that can execute computer programs. This broad definition can easily be applied to many early computers that existed long before the term "CPU" ever came into widespread usage. The term itself and its initialism have been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation has remained much the same.<br /><br />Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are suited for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones to children's toys.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://regmedia.co.uk/2006/11/01/core2extreme_quad_cpu.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 183px;" src="http://regmedia.co.uk/2006/11/01/core2extreme_quad_cpu.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />The Intel Core2 Extreme<br /><br /><br /></div>Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU">Wikipedia</a><br /><a href="http://www.intel.com/"></a>iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-26524783858481186052008-09-30T18:46:00.000-07:002008-09-30T20:03:22.244-07:00MotherBoardA <span style="font-weight: bold;">Motherboard</span> is the central or primary printed circuit board (PCB) making up a complex electronic system, such as a modern computer or laptop. It is also known as a mainboard, baseboard, system board, planar board, or, on Apple computers, a logic board, and is sometimes abbreviated casually as mobo.<br /><br />Most motherboards produced today are designed for so-called IBM-compatible computers, which held over 96% of the global personal computer market in 2005. Motherboards for IBM-compatible computers are specifically covered in the PC motherboard article.<br /><br />A motherboard, like a backplane, provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system communicate, but unlike a backplane also contains the central processing unit and other subsystems such as real time clock, and some peripheral interfaces.<br /><br />A typical desktop computer is built with the microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components on the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and sound, and peripheral devices are typically attached to the motherboard via edge connectors and cables, although in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate these "peripherals" into the motherboard.<br /><br />All of the basic circuitry and components required for a computer to function are onboard the motherboard or are connected with a cable. The most important component on a motherboard is the chipset. It often consists of two components or chips known as the Northbridge and Southbridge, though they may also be integrated into a single component. These chips determine, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.techfresh.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/asus-p5q.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 300px; height: 245px;" src="http://www.techfresh.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/asus-p5q.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />The ASUS P5Q Motherboard<br /><br /></div><br />Most motherboards include, at a minimum:<br /><ul><li> Sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors (CPUs) are installed.</li></ul><ul><li> Slots into which the system's main memory is installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips).</li></ul><ul><li> Achipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side bus, main memory, and peripheral buses.</li></ul><ul><li> Non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS.</li></ul><ul><li>A clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components.</li></ul><ul><li> Slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset).</li></ul><ul><li> Power connectors flickers, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards.</li></ul><br /><br />Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly-used input devices, such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard. Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard. Occasionally video interface hardware was also integrated into the motherboard; for example on the Apple II, and rarely on IBM-compatible computers such as the IBM PC Jr. Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports were provided as expansion cards.<br /><br />Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heatsinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard">Wikipedia</a><br /><a href="http://www.xfxforce.com/"></a>iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-83019009044092922242008-09-30T03:00:00.000-07:002008-09-30T20:09:33.439-07:00Computer Hardware<meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link style="font-family: 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1073750139 0 0 159 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-unhide:no; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; margin-top:0cm; margin-right:0cm; margin-bottom:10.0pt; margin-left:0cm; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Cordia New"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;} .MsoChpDefault {mso-style-type:export-only; mso-default-props:yes; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Cordia New"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;} .MsoPapDefault {mso-style-type:export-only; margin-bottom:10.0pt; line-height:115%;} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 72.0pt 72.0pt 72.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --</style>Let's start from the outside. A typical personal computers those we are using nowadays consist of a case or chassis in a tower shape (as shown below) and the following parts:</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: verdana;">
<br /></p><p style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.made-in-china.com/image/2f0j00YQEaDCGJBTcRM/Computer-Case-AC-1-.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.made-in-china.com/image/2f0j00YQEaDCGJBTcRM/Computer-Case-AC-1-.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: verdana;">
<br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: verdana;">
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mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><p style="font-weight: bold;font-family:verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">I. Motherboard</span></p> <p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Motherboard</span> - It is the "body" or mainframe of the computer, through which all other components interface.</li></ul>
<br /><div style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://xpressmanagedservices.co.in/images/motherboard.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://xpressmanagedservices.co.in/images/motherboard.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a>
<br />
<br /></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central processing unit (CPU)</span> - Performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function, sometimes referred to as the "brain" of the computer. </li></ul><div style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://xpressmanagedservices.co.in/images/core2duo.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 186px;" src="http://xpressmanagedservices.co.in/images/core2duo.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Computer fan</span> - Used to lower the temperature of the computer; a fan is almost always attached to the CPU, and the computer case will generally have several fans to maintain a constant airflow. Liquid cooling can also be used to cool a computer, though it focuses more on individual parts rather than the overall temperature inside the chassis.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.acousticpc.com/images/a_scythe_sflex_8db_fan_lg_pic.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 185px;" src="http://www.acousticpc.com/images/a_scythe_sflex_8db_fan_lg_pic.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Random Access Memory (RAM)</span> -It is also known as the physical memory of the computer. Fast-access memory that is cleared when the computer is powered-down. RAM attaches directly to the motherboard, and is used to store programs that are currently running.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://xpressmanagedservices.co.in/images/ddr2.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 199px; height: 119px;" src="http://xpressmanagedservices.co.in/images/ddr2.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Firmware</span> is loaded from the Read only memory ROM run from the Basic Input-Output System (BIOS) or in newer systems Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) compliant. <meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" 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3 4 2 2 2 2 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:16777219 0 0 0 65537 0;} @font-face {font-family:"Cambria Math"; panose-1:2 4 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:1; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-format:other; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:0 0 0 0 0 0;} @font-face {font-family:Calibri; panose-1:2 15 5 2 2 2 4 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1610611985 1073750139 0 0 159 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-unhide:no; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; margin-top:0cm; margin-right:0cm; margin-bottom:10.0pt; margin-left:0cm; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Cordia New"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;} .MsoChpDefault {mso-style-type:export-only; mso-default-props:yes; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Cordia New"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;} .MsoPapDefault {mso-style-type:export-only; margin-bottom:10.0pt; line-height:115%;} @page Section1 {size:595.3pt 841.9pt; margin:72.0pt 72.0pt 72.0pt 72.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0cm; mso-para-margin-right:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0cm; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal">As its name suggests, firmware is somewhere between hardware and software. Like software, it is a computer program which is executed by a microprocessor or a microcontroller <span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>. But it is also tightly linked to a piece of hardware, and has little meaning outside of it.</p> </li></ul><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">Internal Buses</span> - Connections to various internal components. </li></ul><div style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.standardics.nxp.com/support/boards/sc18is602/images/boardshot.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 172px;" src="http://www.standardics.nxp.com/support/boards/sc18is602/images/boardshot.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">PCI</span> (being phased out for graphic cards but still used for other uses). The <span style="font-weight: bold;">Peripheral Component Interconnect</span>, or PCI Standard, specifies a computer bus for attaching peripheral devices to a computer mother board. Typical PCI cards used in PCs include: network cards, sound cards, modems, extra ports such as USB or serial, TV tuner cards and disk controllers.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.hothardware.com/reviews/images/tualatin/pci_slot.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 183px;" src="http://www.hothardware.com/reviews/images/tualatin/pci_slot.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">PCI-E</span> or <b>Peripheral Component Interconnect Express</b>, officially abbreviated as <b>PCI-E</b> or <b>PCIe</b>, is a computer expansion card interface format introduced by Intel in 2004. PCI Express was designed to replace the general-purpose PCI expansion bus, the high-end PCI-X bus and the AGP graphics card interface. Unlike previous PC expansion interfaces, rather than being a bus it is structured around point-to-point serial links called lanes.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/PCI-Express-Bus.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 400px; height: 64px;" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/PCI-Express-Bus.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><b>Universal Serial Bus</b> (<b>USB</b>) is a serial bus standard to interface devices to a host computer. USB was designed to allow many peripherals to be connected using a single standardized interface socket and to improve the plug-and-play capabilities by allowing hot swapping, that is, by allowing devices to be connected and disconnected without rebooting the computer or turning off the device. Other convenient features include providing power to low-consumption devices without the need for an external power supply and allowing many devices to be used without requiring manufacturer specific, individual device drivers to be installed.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/USB_TypeA_Plug.JPG"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 191px;" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/USB_TypeA_Plug.JPG" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family:verdana;"><li><b>HyperTransport</b> (<b>HT</b>), formerly known as <b>Lightning Data Transport</b> (<b>LDT</b>), is a bidirectional serial/parallel high-bandwidth, low-latency point-to-point link that was introduced on April 2, 2001.</li></ul><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul face="verdana"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">CSI</span> - The <b>Intel QuickPath Interconnect</b> or simply "<b>QuickPath</b>"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_System_Interface#cite_note-1" title=""></a></sup> (the official legal name for <b>Common System Interface</b> or "<b>CSI</b>") is a point-to-point processo<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>r interconnection being developed by Intel, as a competitor to HyperTransport. QuickPath technology also includes an integrated memory controlle. It is expected to be released in late 2008 and will first be used by Intel's Nehalem and Tukwila processors.</li></ul><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul face="verdana"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">AGP</span> - The <b>Accelerated Graphics Port</b> (also called <b>Advanced Graphics Port</b>) is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a graphics card to a computer's motherboard, primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. Since 2004, AGP is being progressively phased out in favor of PCI-E</li></ul><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">VLB</span> (outdated)</li></ul><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p><ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li><span style="font-weight: bold;">External Bus Controllers</span> - used to connect to external peripherals, such as printers and input devices. These ports may also be based upon expansion cards, attached to the internal buses.</li></ul><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; font-family: verdana;"> </p><p style="font-weight: bold;font-family:verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">II. Power supply</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: verdana;">A case control, and (usually) a cooling fan, and supplies power to run the rest of the computer, the most common types of power supplies are AT and BabyAT (old) but the standard for PCs actually are ATX and Micro ATX.</p><p style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.global-b2b-network.com/direct/dbimage/50335749/Atx_Power_Supply.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.global-b2b-network.com/direct/dbimage/50335749/Atx_Power_Supply.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p> <p style="font-weight: bold;font-family:verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">III. Storage controllers</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: verdana;">Controllers for hard disk, CD-ROM and other drives like internal Zip and Jaz conventionally for a PC are IDE/ATA; the controllers sit directly on the motherboard (on-board) or on expansion cards, such as a Disk array controller. IDE is usually integrated, unlike SCSI Small Computer System Interface which can be found in some servers. The floppy drive interface is a legacy MFM interface which is now slowly disappearing. All these interfaces are gradually being phased out to be replaced by SATA and SAS.</p><p style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://cdn.overstock.com/images/products/3/L11233465.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://cdn.overstock.com/images/products/3/L11233465.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p> <p style="font-weight: bold;font-family:verdana;" class="MsoNormal">IV. Video display controller</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: verdana;">Produces the output for the visual display unit. This will either be built into the motherboard or attached in its own separate slot (PCI, PCI-E, PCI-E 2.0, or AGP), in the form of a Graphics Card.</p><p style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.techinfodata.info/wp-content/uploads/2007/05/nx8600gts.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 155px;" src="http://www.techinfodata.info/wp-content/uploads/2007/05/nx8600gts.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p> <p style="font-weight: bold;font-family:verdana;" class="MsoNormal">V. Removable media devices</p> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>CD (compact disc) - the most common type of removable media, inexpensive but has a short life-span. </li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>CD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a CD.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>CD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a CD.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>DVD (digital versatile disc) - a popular type of removable media that is the same dimensions as a CD but stores up to 6 times as much information. It is the most common way of transferring digital video. </li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>DVD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a DVD.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>DVD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a DVD.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>DVD-RAM Drive - a device used for rapid writing and reading of data from a special type of DVD.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Blu-ray - a high-density optical disc format for the storage of digital information, including high-definition video. </li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>BD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a Blu-ray disc.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>BD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a Blu-ray disc.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>HD DVD - a high-density optical disc format and successor to the standard DVD. It was a discontinued competitor to the Blu-ray format.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Floppy disk - an outdated storage device consisting of a thin disk of a flexible magnetic storage medium.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Zip drive - an outdated medium-capacity removable disk storage system, first introduced by Iomega in 1994.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>USB flash drive - a flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB interface, typically small, lightweight, removable, and rewritable.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Tape drive - a device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape,used for long term storage.</li></ul> <p face="verdana" style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">VI. Internal storage</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: verdana;">Hardware that keeps data inside the computer for later use and remains persistent even when the computer has no power.</p> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Hard disk - for medium-term storage of data.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.fahad.com/pics/fujitsu_160gb_300mbs_hard_disk.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 176px;" src="http://www.fahad.com/pics/fujitsu_160gb_300mbs_hard_disk.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a> </div><ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Solid-state drive - a device similar to hard disk, but containing no moving parts.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Disk array controller - a device to manage several hard disks, to achieve performance or reliability improvement.</li></ul> <p face="verdana" style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">VII. Sound card</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family:verdana;">Enables the computer to output sound to audio devices, as well as accept input from a microphone. Most modern computers have sound cards built-in to the motherboard, though it is common for a user to install a separate sound card as an upgrade.</p><p style="text-align: center; font-family: verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/sound-card-2.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 148px;" src="http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/sound-card-2.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p> <p style="font-weight: bold; font-family: verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">VIII. Networking</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family:verdana;">Connects the computer to the Internet and/or other computers.</p> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Modem - for dial-up connections</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Network card - for DSL/Cable internet, and/or connecting to other computers.</li></ul> <ul style="font-family: verdana;"><li>Direct Cable Connection - Use of a null modem, connecting two computers together using their serial ports or a Laplink Cable, connecting two computers together with their parallel ports.</li></ul> <p style="font-weight: bold; font-family: verdana;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">IX. Other peripherals</span></p> <p face="verdana" class="MsoNormal">In addition, hardware devices can include external components of a computer system. The following are either standard or very common.</p><p face="verdana" class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p face="verdana" class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p style="font-family: verdana; font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">1. Input</p> <span style="font-weight: bold;">1.1 Text input devices </span> <ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Keyboard</span> - a device to input text and characters by depressing buttons (referred to as keys), similar to a typewriter. The most common English-language key layout is the QWERTY layout.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://blog.wiihacks.com/uploaded_images/logitech-classic-200-761874.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 131px;" src="http://blog.wiihacks.com/uploaded_images/logitech-classic-200-761874.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a>
<br /></div><span style="font-weight: bold;">1.2 Pointing devices </span> <ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Mouse</span> - a pointing device that detects two dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.cnet.co.uk/i/c/blg/cat/peripherals/Logitech%20mouse.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.cnet.co.uk/i/c/blg/cat/peripherals/Logitech%20mouse.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Trackball</span> - a pointing device consisting of an exposed protruding ball housed in a socket that detects rotation about two axes.</li></ul>
<br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.activewin.com/reviews/hardware/mice/trackexp/images/TrackballExplorer.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 254px;" src="http://www.activewin.com/reviews/hardware/mice/trackexp/images/TrackballExplorer.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <span style="font-weight: bold;">1.3 Gaming devices </span> <ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Joystick</span> - a general control device that consists of a handheld stick that pivots around one end, to detect angles in two or three dimensions.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.mrgadget.com.au/catalog/images/logitechFreedomJoystickWirelesss.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.mrgadget.com.au/catalog/images/logitechFreedomJoystickWirelesss.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Gamepad</span> - a general handheld game controller that relies on the digits (especially thumbs) to provide input.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.compareindia.com/media/images/2007/jun/img_829_logitech_precision_gamepad.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.compareindia.com/media/images/2007/jun/img_829_logitech_precision_gamepad.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Game controller</span> - a specific type of controller specialized for certain gaming purposes.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://ecx.images-amazon.com/images/I/41CB11r%2B5aL._SL500.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://ecx.images-amazon.com/images/I/41CB11r%2B5aL._SL500.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a>
<br /></div> <span style="font-weight: bold;">1.4 Image, Video input devices </span> <ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Image scanner</span> - a device that provides input by analyzing images, printed text, handwriting, or an object.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.netbanker.com/Images/scanner.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 134px;" src="http://www.netbanker.com/Images/scanner.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Webcam</span> - a low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be easily transferred over the internet.</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.navacerrada.info/webcam/webcam.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 177px;" src="http://www.navacerrada.info/webcam/webcam.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a>
<br /></div> <span style="font-weight: bold;">1.5 Audio input devices </span> <ul><li><span style="font-weight: bold;"> Microphone</span> - an acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into electrical signals</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.telecron.hr/Slike/Racunalne/Audio10A.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 226px;" src="http://www.telecron.hr/Slike/Racunalne/Audio10A.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <p style="font-family: verdana; font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">2. Output</p><p style="font-family: verdana; font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">2.1 Image, Video output devices
<br /></p><ul><li>Printer</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.ireviewelectronics.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/02/canon-photo-printer.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.ireviewelectronics.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/02/canon-photo-printer.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <ul><li>Monitor</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.crunchgear.com/wp-content/photos/LG_monitor_w606.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 163px;" src="http://www.crunchgear.com/wp-content/photos/LG_monitor_w606.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a>
<br /></div> <span style="font-weight: bold;">2.2 Audio output devices </span> <ul><li>Speakers</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.purelygadgets.co.uk/images/user/products/JBL%20Creature%20II%20Audio%20Speaker%20System%20-%20Aluminum.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.purelygadgets.co.uk/images/user/products/JBL%20Creature%20II%20Audio%20Speaker%20System%20-%20Aluminum.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <ul><li>Headset</li></ul><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.gameguru.in/images/fatal1ty-gaming-headset-by-creative.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 158px;" src="http://www.gameguru.in/images/fatal1ty-gaming-headset-by-creative.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a>
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<br /></div>Sources:<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"> <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Wikipedia</span></a>
<br />Images: Many sources searched through <a href="http://images.google.com/">Google</a>
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<br /><b style="font-family:verdana;"><span style="font-size:18;"><o:p></o:p></span></b><p style="font-family: verdana;"></p> iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-86760433900567766232008-09-30T02:12:00.001-07:002008-09-30T20:15:25.482-07:00History of Computer (Part 4)The title of forefather of today's all-electronic digital computers is usually awarded to <b><i>ENIAC</i></b>, which stood for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator. ENIAC was built at the University of Pennsylvania between 1943 and 1945 by two professors, <b><i>John </i></b><b><i>Mauchly</i></b> and the 24 year old <b><i>J. Presper Eckert</i></b>, who got funding from the war department after promising they could build a machine that would replace all the "computers", meaning the women who were employed calculating the firing tables for the army's artillery guns. The day that Mauchly and Eckert saw the first small piece of ENIAC work, the persons they ran to bring to their lab to show off their progress were some of these female computers (one of whom remarked, "I was astounded that it took all this equipment to multiply 5 by 1000"). <p> ENIAC filled a 20 by 40 foot room, weighed 30 tons, and used more than 18,000 vacuum tubes. Like the Mark I, ENIAC employed paper card readers obtained from IBM (these were a regular product for IBM, as they were a long established part of business accounting machines, IBM's forte). When operating, the ENIAC was silent but you knew it was on as the 18,000 vacuum tubes each generated waste heat like a light bulb and all this heat (174,000 watts of heat) meant that the computer could only be operated in a specially designed room with its own heavy duty air conditioning system. Only the left half of ENIAC is visible in the first picture, the right half was basically a mirror image of what's visible.<br /></p><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/eniac1.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 265px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/eniac1.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a> <a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/ENIAC02.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 269px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/ENIAC02.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Two views of ENIAC: the "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator" (note that it wasn't even given the name of computer since "computers" were people) [U.S. Army photo] </h5><br /><p> To reprogram the ENIAC you had to rearrange the patch cords that you can observe on the left in the prior photo, and the settings of 3000 switches that you can observe on the right. To program a modern computer, you type out a program with statements like: </p><pre> Circumference = 3.14 * diameter</pre> <pre></pre> <p> To perform this computation on ENIAC you had to rearrange a large number of patch cords and then locate three particular knobs on that vast wall of knobs and set them to 3, 1, and 4.<br /></p><p><br /></p><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/eniac4.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/eniac4.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Reprogramming ENIAC involved a hike [U.S. Army photo] </h5><br /><p> Once the army agreed to fund ENIAC, Mauchly and Eckert worked around the clock, seven days a week, hoping to complete the machine in time to contribute to the war. Their war-time effort was so intense that most days they ate all 3 meals in the company of the army Captain who was their liaison with their military sponsors. They were allowed a small staff but soon observed that they could hire only the most junior members of the University of Pennsylvania staff because the more experienced faculty members knew that their proposed machine would never work. </p> <p> One of the most obvious problems was that the design would require 18,000 vacuum tubes to all work simultaneously. Vacuum tubes were so notoriously unreliable that even twenty years later many neighborhood drug stores provided a "tube tester" that allowed homeowners to bring in the vacuum tubes from their television sets and determine which one of the tubes was causing their TV to fail. And television sets only incorporated about 30 vacuum tubes. The device that used the largest number of vacuum tubes was an electronic organ: it incorporated 160 tubes. The idea that 18,000 tubes could function together was considered so unlikely that the dominant vacuum tube supplier of the day, RCA, refused to join the project (but did supply tubes in the interest of "wartime cooperation"). Eckert solved the tube reliability problem through extremely careful circuit design. He was so thorough that before he chose the type of wire cabling he would employ in ENIAC he first ran an experiment where he starved lab rats for a few days and then gave them samples of all the available types of cable to determine which they least liked to eat. Here's a look at a small number of the vacuum tubes in ENIAC:<br /></p> <p><br /></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/eniac3.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/eniac3.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></p> <p><br /></p> <p> Even with 18,000 vacuum tubes, ENIAC could only hold 20 numbers at a time. However, thanks to the elimination of moving parts it ran much faster than the Mark I: a multiplication that required 6 seconds on the Mark I could be performed on ENIAC in 2.8 thousandths of a second. ENIAC's basic clock speed was 100,000 cycles per second. Today's home computers employ clock speeds of 1,000,000,000 cycles per second. Built with $500,000 from the U.S. Army, ENIAC's first task was to compute whether or not it was possible to build a hydrogen bomb (the atomic bomb was completed during the war and hence is older than ENIAC). The very first problem run on ENIAC required only 20 seconds and was checked against an answer obtained after forty hours of work with a mechanical calculator. After chewing on half a million punch cards for six weeks, ENIAC did humanity no favor when it declared the hydrogen bomb feasible. This first ENIAC program remains classified even today. </p> <p> Once ENIAC was finished and proved worthy of the cost of its development, its designers set about to eliminate the obnoxious fact that reprogramming the computer required a physical modification of all the patch cords and switches. It took days to change ENIAC's program. Eckert and Mauchly's next teamed up with the mathematician <b><i>John von Neumann</i></b> to design <b><i>EDVAC</i></b>, which pioneered the <b><i>stored program</i></b>. Because he was the first to publish a description of this new computer, von Neumann is often wrongly credited with the realization that the program (that is, the sequence of computation steps) could be represented electronic ally just as the data was. But this major breakthrough can be found in Eckert's notes long before he ever started working with von Neumann. Eckert was no slouch: while in high school Eckert had scored the second highest math SAT score in the entire country. </p> <p> After ENIAC and EDVAC came other computers with humorous names such as ILLIAC, JOHNNIAC, and, of course, MANIAC. ILLIAC was built at the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, which is probably why the science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke chose to have the HAL computer of his famous book "2001: A Space Odyssey" born at Champaign-Urbana. Have you ever noticed that you can shift each of the letters of IBM backward by one alphabet position and get HAL? </p><p><br /></p><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/ILLIAC2.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/ILLIAC2.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><pre>ILLIAC II built at the University of Illinois (it is a good thing computers were one-of-a-kind creations in these days, can you imagine being asked to duplicate this?)<br /></pre></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/HAL.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/HAL.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><pre><span style="font-family:Georgia,serif;"></span>HAL from the movie "2001: A Space Odyssey". Look at the previous picture to understand why the movie makers in 1968 assumed computers of the future would be things you walk into. </pre></div><br /><p> JOHNNIAC was a reference to John von Neumann, who was unquestionably a genius. At age 6 he could tell jokes in classical Greek. By 8 he was doing calculus. He could recite books he had read years earlier word for word. He could read a page of the phone directory and then recite it backwards. On one occasion it took von Neumann only 6 minutes to solve a problem in his head that another professor had spent hours on using a mechanical calculator. Von Neumann is perhaps most famous (infamous?) as the man who worked out the complicated method needed to detonate an atomic bomb. </p> <p> Once the computer's program was represented electronically, modifications to that program could happen as fast as the computer could compute. In fact, computer programs could now modify themselves while they ran (such programs are called self-modifying programs). This introduced a new way for a program to fail: faulty logic in the program could cause it to damage itself. This is one source of the <b><i>general protection fault</i></b> famous in MS-DOS and the <b><i>blue screen of death </i></b> famous in Windows. </p><p> Today, one of the most notable characteristics of a computer is the fact that its ability to be <b><i>reprogrammed</i></b> allows it to contribute to a wide variety of endeavors, such as the following completely unrelated fields: </p> <ul type="disc"><li> the creation of special effects f or movies, </li><li> the compression of music to allow more minutes of music to fit within the limited memory of an MP3 player, </li><li> the observation of car tire rotation to detect and prevent skids in an anti-lock braking system (ABS), </li><li> the analysis of the writing style in Shake speare's work with the goal of proving whether a single individual really was responsible for all these pieces. </li></ul> <p> By the end of the 1950's computers were no longer one-of-a-kind hand built devices owned only by universities and government research labs. Eckert and Mauchly left the University of Pennsylvania over a dispute about who owned the patents for their invention. They decided to set up their own company. Their first product was the famous <b><i>UNIVAC</i></b> computer, the first commercial (that is, mass produced) computer. In the 50's, UNIVAC (a contraction of "Universal Automatic Computer") was the household word for "computer" just as "Kleenex" is for "tissue". The first UNIVAC was sold, appropriately enough, to the Census bureau. UNIVAC was also the first computer to employ magnetic tape. Many people still confuse a picture of a reel-to-reel tape recorder with a picture of a mainframe computer. </p><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/TapeDrive.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 300px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/TapeDrive.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><pre><span style="font-family:Georgia,serif;"></span>A reel-to-reel tape drive [photo courtesy of The Computer Museum] </pre></div><br />ENIAC was unquestionably the origin of the U.S. commercial computer industry, but its inventors, Mauchly and Eckert, never achieved fortune from their work and their company fell into financial problems and was sold at a loss. By 1955 IBM was selling more computers than UNIVAC and by the 1960's the group of eight companies selling computers was known as "IBM and the seven dwarfs". IBM grew so dominant that the federal government pursued anti-trust proceedings against them from 1969 to 1982 (notice the pace of our country's legal system). You might wonder what type of event is required to dislodge an industry heavyweight. In IBM's case it was their own decision to hire an unknown but aggressive firm called <b><i>Microsoft</i></b> to provide the software for their <b><i>personal computer</i></b> (P C). This lucrative contract allowed Microsoft to grow so dominant that by the year 2000 their market capitalization (the total value of their stock) was twice that of IBM and they were convicted in Federal Court of running an illegal monopoly. <p> If you learned computer programming in the 1970's, you dealt with what today are called <b><i>mainframe computers</i></b>, such as the IBM 7090 (shown below), IBM 360, or IBM 370.<br /></p><p><br /></p><div style="text-align: center;"><pre><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IBM7094.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IBM7094.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></pre></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The IBM 7094, a typical mainframe computer [photo courtesy of IBM] </h5>There were 2 ways to interact with a mainframe. The first was called <b><i>time sharing</i></b> because the computer gave each user a tiny sliver of time in a round-robin fashion. Perhaps 100 users would be simultaneously logged on, each typing on a <b><i>teletype</i></b> such as the following:<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/TeletypeASR33.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/TeletypeASR33.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The Teletype was the standard mechanism used to interact with a time-sharing computer </h5><br />A teletype was a motorized typewriter that could transmit your keystrokes to the mainframe and then print the computer's response on its roll of paper. You typed a single line of text, hit the carriage return button, and waited for the teletype to begin noisily printing the computer's response (at a whopping 10 characters per second). On the left-hand side of the teletype in the prior picture you can observe a paper tape reader and writer (i.e., puncher). Here's a close-up of paper tape:<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PaperTape.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 372px; height: 136px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PaperTape.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PaperTape3.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 138px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PaperTape3.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PaperTape2.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 235px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PaperTape2.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Three views of paper tape </h5><br />After observing the holes in paper tape it is perhaps obvious why all computers use binary numbers to represent data: a binary bit (that is, one digit of a binary number) can only have the value of 0 or 1 (just as a decimal digit can only have the value of 0 thru 9). Something which can only take two states is very easy to manufacture, control, and sense. In the case of paper tape, the hole has either been punched or it has not. Electro-mechanical computers such as the Mark I used relays to represent data because a relay (which is just a motor driven switch) can only be open or closed. The earliest all-electronic computers used vacuum tubes as switches: they too were either open or closed. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes because they too could act as switches but were smaller, cheaper, and consumed less power. <p> Paper tape has a long history as well. It was first used as an information storage medium by Sir Charles Wheatstone, who used it to store Morse code that was arriving via the newly invented telegraph (incidentally, Wheatstone was also the inventor of the accordion). </p><p> The alternative to time sharing was <b><i>batch mode processing</i></b>, where the computer gives its full attention to your program. In exchange for getting the computer's full attention at run-time, you had to agree to prepare your program off-line on a <b><i>key punch machine</i></b> which generated punch cards.<br /></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Keypunch.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Keypunch.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">An IBM Key Punch machine which operates like a typewriter except it produces punched cards rather than a printed sheet of paper</h5><br /><p> University students in the 1970's bought blank cards a linear foot at a time from the university bookstore. Each card could hold only 1 program statement. To submit your program to the mainframe, you placed your stack of cards in the hopper of a card reader. Your program would be run whenever the computer made it that far. You often submitted your deck and then went to dinner or to bed and came back later hoping to see a successful printout showing your results. Obviously, a program run in batch mode could not be interactive. </p><p> But things changed fast. By the 1990's a university student would typically own his own computer and have exclusive use of it in his dorm room.<br /></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IBM_PC.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IBM_PC.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The original IBM Personal Computer (PC) </h5><br />This transformation was a result of the invention of the <b><i>microprocessor</i></b>. A microprocessor (uP) is a computer that is fabricated on an integrated circuit (IC). Computers had been around for 20 years before the first microprocessor was developed at <b><i>Intel</i></b> in 1971. The micro in the name microprocessor refers to the physical size. Intel didn't invent the electronic computer. But they were the first to succeed in cramming an entire computer on a single <b><i>chip</i></b> (IC). Intel was started in 1968 and initially produced only semiconductor memory (Intel invented both the DRAM and the EPROM, two memory technologies that are still going strong today). In 1969 they were approached by Busicom, a Japanese manufacturer of high performance calculators (these were typewriter sized units, the first shirt-pocket sized scientific calculator was the Hewlett-Packard HP35 introduced in 1972). Busicom wanted Intel to produce 12 custom calculator chips: one chip dedicated to the keyboard, another chip dedicated to the display, another for the printer, etc. But integrated circuits were (and are) expensive to design and this approach would have required Busicom to bear the full expense of developing 12 new chips since these 12 chips would only be of use to them.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/busicom.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 250px; height: 250px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/busicom.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">A typical Busicom desk calculator </h5><br /><p> But a new Intel employee (Ted Hoff) convinced Busicom to instead accept a general purpose computer chip which, like all computers, could be reprogrammed for many different tasks (like controlling a keyboard, a display, a printer, etc.). Intel argued that since the chip could be reprogrammed for alternative purposes, the cost of developing it could be spread out over more users and hence would be less expensive to each user. The general purpose computer is adapted to each new purpose by writing a <b><i>program</i></b> which is a sequence of instructions stored in memory (which happened to be Intel's forte). Busicom agreed to pay Intel to design a general purpose chip and to get a price break since it would allow Intel to sell the resulting chip to others. But development of the chip took longer than expected and Busicom pulled out of the project. Intel knew it had a winner by that point and gladly refunded all of Busicom's investment just to gain sole rights to the device which they finished on their own. </p><p> Thus became the Intel 4004, the first microprocessor (uP). The 4004 consisted of 2300 transistors and was clocked at 108 kHz (i.e., 108,000 times per second). Compare this to the 42 million transistors and the 2 GHz clock rate (i.e., 2,000,000,000 times per second) used in a Pentium 4. One of Intel's 4004 chips still functions aboard the Pioneer 10 spacecraft, which is now the man-made object farthest from the earth. Curiously, Busicom went bankrupt and never ended up using the ground-breaking microprocessor. </p><p> Intel followed the 4004 with the 8008 and 8080. Intel priced the 8080 microprocessor at $360 dollars as an insult to IBM's famous 360 mainframe which cost millions of dollars. The 8080 was employed in the <b><i>MITS Altair</i></b> computer, which was the world's first <b><i>personal computer</i></b> (PC). It was personal all right: you had to build it yourself from a kit of parts that arrived in the mail. This kit didn't even include an enclosure and that is the reason the unit shown below doesn't match the picture on the magazine cover. </p><p><br /></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Altair.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 471px; height: 200px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Altair.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The Altair 8800, the first PC </h5><br />A Harvard freshman by the name of <b><i>Bill Gates</i></b> decided to drop out of college so he could concentrate all his time writing programs for this computer. This early experienced put Bill Gates in the right place at the right time once IBM decided to standardize on the Intel microprocessors for their line of PCs in 1981. The Intel Pentium 4 used in today's PCs is still compatible with the Intel 8088 used in IBM's first PC.<br /><br />Credit: <a href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HistoryPt4.htm"><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Computersciencelab</span></a><br />Author: John Kopplin © 2002iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-91681194480174126832008-09-30T01:19:00.000-07:002008-09-30T20:14:20.742-07:00History of Computer (Part 3)IBM continued to develop mechanical calculators for sale to businesses to help with financial accounting and inventory accounting. One characteristic of both financial accounting and inventory accounting is that although you need to subtract, you don't need negative numbers and you really don't have to multiply since multiplication can be accomplished via repeated addition. <p> But the U.S. military desired a mechanical calculator more optimized for scientific computation. By World War II the U.S. had battleships that could lob shells weighing as much as a small car over distances up to 25 miles. Physicists could write the equations that described how atmospheric drag, wind, gravity, muzzle velocity, etc. would determine the trajectory of the shell. But solving such equations was extremely laborious. This was the work performed by the human computers. Their results would be published in ballistic "firing tables" published in gunnery manuals. During World War II the U.S. military scoured the country looking for (generally female) math majors to hire for the job of computing these tables. But not enough humans could be found to keep up with the need for new tables. Sometimes artillery pieces had to be delivered to the battlefield without the necessary firing tables and this meant they were close to useless because they couldn't be aimed properly. Faced with this situation, the U.S. military was willing to invest in even hair-brained schemes to automate this type of computation. </p><p> One early success was the Harvard <b><i>Mark I</i></b> computer which was built as a partnership between Harvard and IBM in 1944. This was the first programmable digital computer made in the U.S. But it was not a purely electronic computer. Instead the Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches. The machine weighed 5 tons, incorporated 500 miles of wire, was 8 feet tall and 51 feet long, and had a 50 ft rotating shaft running its length, turned by a 5 horsepower electric motor. The Mark I ran non-stop for 15 years, sounding like a roomful of ladies knitting. To appreciate the scale of this machine note the four typewriters in the foreground of the following photo.</p><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/mark1.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/mark1.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The Harvard Mark I: an electro-mechanical computer </h5><br />You can see the 50 ft rotating shaft in the bottom of the prior photo. This shaft was a central power source for the entire machine. This design feature was reminiscent of the days when waterpower was used to run a machine shop and each lathe or other tool was driven by a belt connected to a single overhead shaft which was turned by an outside waterwheel.<br /><br />Here's a close-up of one of the Mark I's four pap er tape readers. A paper tape was an improvement over a box of punched cards as anyone who has ever dropped -- and thus shuffled -- his "stack" knows.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/MarkITapeReader.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/MarkITapeReader.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">One of the four paper tape readers on the Harvard Mark I (you can observe the punched paper roll emerging from the bottom) </h5><br />One of the primary programmers for the Mark I was a woman, <b><i>Grace Hopper</i></b>. Hopper found the first computer "bug": a dead moth that had gotten into the Mark I and whose wings were blocking the reading of the holes in the paper tape. The word "bug" had been used to describe a defect since at least 1889 but Hopper is credited with coining the word "debugging" to describe the work to eliminate program faults.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/FirstBug.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/FirstBug.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The first computer bug [photo © 2002 IEEE] </h5><br /><p> In 1953 Grace Hopper invented the first high-level language, "Flow-matic". This language eventually became COBOL which was the language most affected by the infamous Y2K problem. A high-level language is designed to be more understandable by humans than is the binary language understood by the computing machinery. A high-level language is worthless without a program -- known as a <b><i>compiler</i></b> -- to translate it into the binary language of the computer and hence Grace Hopper also constructed the world's first compiler. Grace remained active as a Rear Admiral in the Navy Reserves until she was 79 (another record). </p> <p> The Mark I operated on numbers that were 23 digits wide. It could add or subtract two of these numbers in three-tenths of a second, multiply them in four seconds, and divide them in ten seconds. Forty-five years later computers could perform an addition in a billionth of a second! Even though the Mark I had three quarters of a million components, it could only store 72 numbers! Today, home computers can store 30 million numbers in RAM and another 10 billion numbers on their hard disk. Today, a number can be pulled from RAM after a delay of only a few billionths of a second, and from a hard disk after a delay of only a few thousandths of a second. This kind of speed is obviously impossible for a machine which must move a rotating shaft and that is why electronic computers killed off their mechanical predecessors. </p> <p> On a humorous note, the principal designer of the Mark I, <b><i>Howard Aiken</i></b> of Harvard, estimated in 1947 that six electronic digital computers would be sufficient to satisfy the computing needs of the entire United States. IBM had commissioned this study to determine whether it should bother developing this new invention into one of its standard products (up until then computers were one-of-a-kind items built by special arrangement). Aiken's prediction wasn't actually so bad as there were very few institutions (principally, the government and military) that could afford the cost of what was called a computer in 1947. He just didn't foresee the micro-electronics revolution which would allow something like an <b><i>IBM Stretch</i></b> computer of 1959: </p><p style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IBMStretch.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IBMStretch.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p> <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>(that's just the operator's console, here's the rest of its 33 foot length:)<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IBMStretch2.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IBMStretch2.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><div style="text-align: left;">to be bested by a home computer of 1976 such as this <b><i>Apple I</i></b> which sold for only $600:<br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Apple1.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Apple1.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The Apple 1 which was sold as a do-it-yourself kit (without the lovely case seen here) </h5><br />Computers had been incredibly expensive because they required so much hand assembly, such as the wiring seen in this <b><i>CDC 7600</i></b>:<br /></div><p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/CDC7600.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/CDC7600.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Typical wiring in an early mainframe computer [photo courtesy The Computer Museum] </h5><br /><div style="text-align: left;">The <b><i>microelectronics revolution</i></b> is what allowed the amount of hand-crafted wiring seen in the prior photo to be mass-produced as an <b><i>integrated circuit</i></b> which is a small sliver of silicon the size of your thumbnail .<br /><br /></div><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IC.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 322px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/IC.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">An integrated circuit ("silicon chip") [photo courtesy of IBM] </h5><br /><div style="text-align: left;"> <p> The primary advantage of an integrated circuit is not that the transistors (switches) are miniscule (that's the secondary advantage), but rather that millions of transistors can be created and interconnected in a mass-production process. All the elements on the integrated circuit are fabricated simultaneously via a small number (maybe 12) of optical masks that define the geometry of each layer. This speeds up the process of fabricating the computer -- and hence reduces its cost -- just as Gutenberg's printing press sped up the fabrication of books and thereby made them affordable to all. </p> <p> The IBM Stretch computer of 1959 needed its 33 foot length to hold the 150,000 transistors it contained. These transistors were tremendously smaller than the vacuum tubes they replaced, but they were still individual elements requiring individual assembly. By the early 1980s this many transistors could be simultaneously fabricated on an integrated circuit. The <b><i>Pentium 4</i></b> microprocessor contains 42,000,000 transistors in this same thumbnail sized piece of silicon. </p> <p> It's humorous to remember that in between the Stretch machine (which would be called a <b><i>mainframe</i></b> today) and the Apple I (a <b><i>desktop computer</i></b>) there was an entire industry segment referred to as <b><i>mini-computers</i></b> such as the following PDP-12 computer of 1969: </p><p><br /></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/decpdp12.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 250px; height: 470px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/decpdp12.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The DEC PDP-12 </h5><br /><p> Sure looks "mini", huh? But we're getting ahead of our story. </p> <p> One of the earliest attempts to build an all-electronic (that is, no gears, cams, belts, shafts, etc.) digital computer occurred in 1937 by <b><i>J. V. Atanasoff</i></b>, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University. By 1941 he and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, had succeeded in building a machine that could solve 29 simultaneous equations with 29 unknowns. This machine was the first to store data as a charge on a capacitor, which is how today's computers store information in their main memory (<b><i>DRAM</i></b> or <b><i>dynamic RAM</i></b>). As far as its inventors were aware, it was also the first to employ binary arithmetic. However, the machine was not programmable, it lacked a conditional branch, its design was appropriate for only one type of mathematical problem, and it was not further pursued after World War II. It's inventors didn't even bother to preserve the machine and it was dismantled by those who moved into the room where it lay abandoned.<br /></p><p><br /></p><p style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/ABC.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/ABC.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></p> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The Atanasoff-Berry Computer [photo © 2002 IEEE] </h5><br />Another candidate for granddaddy of the modern computer was <b><i>Colossus</i></b>, built during World War II by Britain for the purpose of breaking the cryptographic codes used by Germany. Britain led the world in designing and building electronic machines dedicated to code breaking, and was routinely able to read coded Germany radio transmissions. But Colossus was definitely not a general purpose, reprogrammable machine. Note the presence of pulleys in the two photos of Colossus below:<br /><br /><p style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Colossus.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Colossus.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></p><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Colossus2.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Colossus2.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Two views of the code-breaking Colossus of Great Britain </h5><br />The Harvard Mark I, the Atanasoff-Berry computer, and the British Colossus all made important contributions. American and British computer pioneers were still arguing over who was first to do what, when in 1965 the work of the German <b><i>Konrad Zuse</i></b> was published for the first time in English. Scooped! Zuse had built a sequence of general purpose computers in Nazi Germany. The first, the <b><i>Z1</i></b>, was built between 1936 and 1938 in the parlor of his parent's home.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Zuse_Z1.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Zuse_Z1.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">The Zuse Z1 in its residential setting </h5><br />Zuse's third machine, the <b><i>Z3</i></b>, built in 1941, was probably the first operational, general-purpose, programmable (that is, software controlled) digital computer. Without knowledge of any calculating machine inventors since Leibniz (who lived in the 1600's), Zuse reinvented Babbage's concept of programming and decided on his own to employ binary representation for numbers (Babbage had advocated decimal). The Z3 was destroyed by an Allied bombing raid. The Z1 and Z2 met the same fate and the Z4 survived only because Zuse hauled it in a wagon up into the mountains. Zuse's accomplishments are all the more incredible given the context of the material and manpower shortages in Germany during World War II. Zuse couldn't even obtain paper tape so he had to make his own by punching holes in discarded movie film. Because these machines were unknown outside Germany, they did not influence the path of computing in America. But their architecture is identical to that still in use today: an arithmetic unit to do the calculations, a memory for storing numbers, a control system to supervise operations, and input and output devices to connect to the external world. Zuse also invented what might be the first high-level computer language, "Plankalkul", though it too was unknown outside Germany.<br /><br /><br />Credit: <a href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HistoryPt3.htm"><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Computersciencelab</span></a><br />Author: John Kopplin © 2002<br /></div><br /></div>iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-42105691161359587672008-09-30T00:44:00.000-07:002008-09-30T20:13:18.729-07:00History of Computer (Part 2)Just a few years after Pascal, the German Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (co-inventor with Newton of calculus) managed to build a four-function (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) calculator that he called the <b><i>stepped reckoner</i></b> because, instead of gears, it employed fluted drums having ten flutes arranged around their circumference in a stair-step fashion. Although the stepped reckoner employed the decimal number system (each drum had 10 flutes), Leibniz was the first to advocate use of the binary number system which is fundamental to the operation of modern computers. Leibniz is considered one of the greatest of the philosophers but he died poor and alone.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/SteppedReckoner.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 140px; height: 116px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/SteppedReckoner.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner (have you ever heard "calculating" referred to as "reckoning"?) </h5><br />In 1801 the Frenchman Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a power loom that could base its weave (and hence the design on the fabric) upon a pattern automatically read from punched wooden cards, held together in a long row by rope. Descendents of these <b><i>punched cards</i></b> have been in use ever since (remember the "hanging chad" from the Florida presidential ballots of the year 2000?).<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/JacquardLoom.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/JacquardLoom.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Jacquard's Loom showing the threads and the punched cards </h5><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/jacquardcard.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 181px; height: 121px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/jacquardcard.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></h5> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">A close-up of a Jacquard card </h5><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/jacquard.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 250px; height: 500px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/jacquard.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></h5> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">This tapestry was woven by a Jacquard loom </h5><br />Jacquard's technology was a real boon to mill owners, but put many loom operators out of work. Angry mobs smashed Jacquard looms and once attacked Jacquard himself. History is full of examples of labor unrest following technological innovation yet most studies show that, overall, technology has actually increased the number of jobs. <p> By 1822 the English mathematician <b><i>Charles Babbage</i></b> was proposing a steam driven calculating machine the size of a room, which he called the <b><i>Difference Engine</i></b>. This machine would be able to compute tables of numbers, such as logarithm tables. He obtained government funding for this project due to the importance of numeric tables in ocean navigation. By promoting their commercial and military navies, the British government had managed to become the earth's greatest empire. But in that time frame the British government was publishing a seven volume set of navigation tables which came with a companion volume of corrections which showed that the set had over 1000 numerical errors. It was hoped that Babbage's machine could eliminate errors in these types of tables. But construction of Babbage's Difference Engine proved exceedingly difficult and the project soon became the most expensive government funded project up to that point in English history. Ten years later the device was still nowhere near complete, acrimony abounded between all involved, and funding dried up. The device was never finished.<br /></p><br /><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/DifferenceEngine.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 300px; height: 394px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/DifferenceEngine.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></h5> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">A small section of the type of mechanism employed in Babbage's Difference Engine [photo © 2002 IEEE] </h5><br /><p> Babbage was not deterred, and by then was on to his next brainstorm, which he called the <b><i>Analytic Engine</i></b>. This device, large as a house and powered by 6 steam engines, would be more general purpose in nature because it would be programmable, thanks to the punched card technology of Jacquard. But it was Babbage who made an important intellectual leap regarding the punched cards. In the Jacquard loom, the presence or absence of each hole in the card physically allows a colored thread to pass or stops that thread (you can see this clearly in the earlier photo). Babbage saw that the pattern of holes could be used to represent an abstract idea such as a problem statement or the raw data required for that problem's solution. Babbage saw that there was no requirement that the problem matter itself physically pass thru the holes. </p> <p> Furthermore, Babbage realized that punched paper could be employed as a storage mechanism, holding computed numbers for future reference. Because of the connection to the Jacquard loom, Babbage called the two main parts of his Analytic Engine the "Store" and the "Mill", as both terms are used in the weaving industry. The Store was where numbers were held and the Mill was where they were "woven" into new results. In a modern computer these same parts are called the <b><i>memory unit</i></b> and the <b><i>central processing unit</i></b> (CPU). </p> <p> The Analytic Engine also had a key function that distinguishes computers from calculators: the conditional statement. A conditional statement allows a program to achieve different results each time it is run. Based on the conditional statement, the path of the program (that is, what statements are executed next) can be determined based upon a condition or situation that is detected at the very moment the program is running. You have probably observed that a modern stoplight at an intersection between a busy street and a less busy street will leave the green light on the busy street until a car approaches on the less busy street. This type of street light is controlled by a computer program that can sense the approach of cars on the less busy street. That moment when the light changes from green to red is not fixed in the program but rather varies with each traffic situation. The conditional statement in the stoplight program would be something like, "if a car approaches on the less busy street and the more busy street has already enjoyed the green light for at least a minute then move the green light to the less busy street". The conditional statement also allows a program to react to the results of its own calculations. An example would be the program that the I.R.S uses to detect tax fraud. This program first computes a person's tax liability and then decides whether to alert the police based upon how that person's tax payments compare to his obligations. </p> <p> Babbage befriended <b><i>Ada Byron</i></b>, the daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron (Ada would later become the Countess Lady Lovelace by marriage). Though she was only 19, she was fascinated by Babbage's ideas and thru letters and meetings with Babbage she learned enough about the design of the Analytic Engine to begin fashioning programs for the still unbuilt machine. While Babbage refused to publish his knowledge for another 30 years, Ada wrote a series of "Notes" wherein she detailed sequences of instructions she had prepared for the Analytic Engine. The Analytic Engine remained unbuilt (the British government refused to get involved with this one) but Ada earned her spot in history as the first computer programmer. Ada invented the subroutine and was the first to recognize the importance of looping. Babbage himself went on to invent the modern postal system, cowcatchers on trains, and the ophthalmoscope, which is still used today to treat the eye. </p> <p> The next breakthrough occurred in America. The U.S. Constitution states that a census should be taken of all U.S. citizens every 10 years in order to determine the representation of the states in Congress. While the very first census of 1790 had only required 9 months, by 1880 the U.S. population had grown so much that the count for the 1880 census took 7.5 years. Automation was clearly needed for the next census. The census bureau offered a prize for an inventor to help with the 1890 census and this prize was won by Herman Hollerith, who proposed and then successfully adopted Jacquard's punched cards for the purpose of computation. </p> <p> Hollerith's invention, known as the <b><i>Hollerith desk</i></b>, consisted of a card reader which sensed the holes in the cards, a gear driven mechanism which could count (using Pascal's mechanism which we still see in car odometers), and a large wall of dial indicators (a car speedometer is a dial indicator) to display the results of the count.<br /></p> <p><br /></p><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Census01.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Census01.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></h5> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Preparation of punched cards for the U.S. census </h5><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/HollerithDesk.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/HollerithDesk.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></h5> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">A few Hollerith desks still exist today [photo courtesy The Computer Museum] </h5><br /><p> The patterns on Jacquard's cards were determined when a tapestry was designed and then were not changed. Today, we would call this a <b><i>read-only</i></b> form of information storage. Hollerith had the insight to convert punched cards to what is today called a <b><i>read/write</i></b> technology. While riding a train, he observed that the conductor didn't merely punch each ticket, but rather punched a particular pattern of holes whose positions indicated the approximate height, weight, eye color, etc. of the ticket owner. This was done to keep anyone else from picking up a discarded ticket and claiming it was his own (a train ticket did not lose all value when <!-- John Kopplin 12/2001 --> it was punched because the same ticket was used for each leg of a trip). Hollerith realized how useful it would be to punch (write) new cards based upon an analysis (reading) of some other set of cards. Complicated analyses, too involved to be accomplished during a single pass thru the cards, could be accomplished via multiple passes thru the cards using newly printed cards to remember the intermediate results. Unknown to Hollerith, Babbage had proposed this long before. </p> <p> Hollerith's technique was successful and the 1890 census was completed in only 3 years at a savings of 5 million dollars. Interesting aside: the reason that a person who removes inappropriate content from a book or movie is called a censor, as is a person who conducts a census, is that in Roman society the public official called the "censor" had both of these jobs. </p> <p>Hollerith built a company, the Tabulating Machine Company which, after a few buyouts, eventually became International Business Machines, known today as <b><i>IBM</i></b>. IBM grew rapidly and punched cards became ubiquitous. Your gas bill would arrive each month with a punch card you had to return with your payment. This punch card recorded the particulars of your account: your name, address, gas usage, etc. (I imagine there were some "hackers" in these days who would alter the punch cards to change their bill). As another example, when you entered a toll way (a highway that collects a fee from each driver) you were given a punch card that recorded where you started and then when you exited from the toll way your fee was computed based upon the miles you drove. When you voted in an election the ballot you were handed was a punch card. The little pieces of paper that are punched out of the card are called "chad" and were thrown as confetti at weddings. Until recently all Social Security and other checks issued by the Federal government were actually punch cards. The check-out slip inside a library book was a punch card. Written on all these cards was a phrase as common as "close cover before striking": "do not fold, spindle, or mutilate". A spindle was an upright spike on the desk of an accounting clerk. As he completed processing each receipt he would impale it on this spike. When the spindle was full, he'd run a piece of string through the holes, tie up the bundle, and ship it off to the archives. You occasionally still see spindles at restaurant cash registers. </p> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/UnivacCard.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/UnivacCard.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></h5> <h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PunchCard.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PunchCard.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></h5><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Two types of computer punch cards </h5><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/ScientificAmericanCover.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/ScientificAmericanCover.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></h5> <div style="text-align: center;">Incidentally, the Hollerith census machine was the first machine to ever be featured on a magazine cover.<br /><br /><div style="text-align: left;"><br />Credit: <a href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HistoryPt2.htm"><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Computersciencelab</span></a><br />Author: John Kopplin © 2002</div> </div>iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5111401017669681287.post-81993932601986428102008-09-29T23:19:00.001-07:002008-09-30T20:12:21.278-07:00History of Computer (Part 1)The first computers were people! That is, electronic computers (and the earlier mechanical computers) were given this name because they performed the work that had previously been assigned to people. "Computer" was originally a job title: it was used to describe those human beings (predominantly women) whose job it was to perform the repetitive calculations required to compute such things as navigational tables, tide charts, and planetary positions for astronomical almanacs. Imagine you had a job where hour after hour, day after day, you were to do nothing but compute multiplications. Boredom would quickly set in, leading to carelessness, leading to mistakes. And even on your best days you wouldn't be producing answers very fast. Therefore, inventors have been searching for hundreds of years for a way to mechanize (that is, find a mechanism that can perform) this task.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/HumanComputers.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/HumanComputers.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: left;"> The <b><i>abacus</i></b> was an early aid for mathematical computations. Its only value is that it aids the memory of the human performing the calculation. A skilled abacus operator can work on addition and subtraction problems at the speed of a person equipped with a hand calculator (multiplication and division are slower). The abacus is often wrongly attributed to China. In fact, the oldest surviving abacus was used in 300 B.C. by the Babylonians. The abacus is still in use today, principally in the far east. A modern abacus consists of rings that slide over rods, but the older one pictured below dates from the time when pebbles were used for counting (the word "calculus" comes from the Latin word for pebble).<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Abacus3.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/Abacus3.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">A more modern abacus. Note how the abacus is really just a representation of the human fingers: the 5 lower rings on each rod represent the 5 fingers and the 2 upper rings represent the 2 hands.</h5><br /><div style="text-align: left;"> In 1617 an eccentric (some say mad) Scotsman named John Napier invented <b><i>logarithms</i></b>, which are a technology that allows multiplication to be performed via addition. The magic ingredient is the logarithm of each operand, which was originally obtained from a printed table. But Napier also invented an alternative to tables, where the logarithm values were carved on ivory sticks which are now called <b><i>Napier's </i></b><b><i>Bones</i></b>.<br /><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/NapiersBones2.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/NapiersBones2.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: left;"> Napier's invention led directly to the <b><i>slide rule</i></b>, first built in England in 1632 and still in use in the 1960's by the NASA engineers of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs which landed men on the moon.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/sliderule.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/sliderule.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><br /><br /> The first gear-driven calculating machine to actually be built was probably the <b><i>calculating clock</i></b>, so named by its inventor, the German professor Wilhelm Schickard in 1623. This device got little publicity because Schickard died soon afterward in the bubonic plague.<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/CalculatingClock.gif"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/CalculatingClock.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></div></div></div><br /><br /> In 1642 Blaise Pascal, at age 19, invented the <b><i>Pascaline</i></b> as an aid for his father who was a tax collector. Pascal built 50 of this gear-driven one-function calculator (it could only add) but couldn't sell many because of their exorbitant cost and because they really weren't that accurate (at that time it was not possible to fabricate gears with the required precision). Up until the present age when car dashboards went digital, the odometer portion of a car's speedometer used the very same mechanism as the Pascaline to increment the next wheel after each full revolution of the prior wheel. Pascal was a child prodigy. At the age of 12, he was discovered doing his version of Euclid's thirty-second proposition on the kitchen floor. Pascal went on to invent probability theory, the hydraulic press, and the syringe. Shown below is an 8 digit version of the Pascaline, and two views of a 6 digit version:<br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/1642Pascaline.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/1642Pascaline.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">Pascal's Pascaline [photo © 2002 IEEE] </h5></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PascalineFront.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PascalineFront.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">A 6 digit model for those who couldn't afford the 8 digit model </h5><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PascalineRear.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px;" src="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/HtmlHelp/Images2/PascalineRear.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /></div><h5 style="font-weight: normal;" align="center">A Pascaline opened up so you can observe the gears and cylinders which rotated to display the numerical result </h5><br />Credit: <a href="http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/History.htm"><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Computersciencelab</span></a><br />Author: John Kopplin © 2002iGofxhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090419702409112418noreply@blogger.com0